DigitalDivide-Erika

The Digital Divide and the Inequality of Information Inquiry Question: How is the digital divide affecting schools in America today? ** “The digital divide refers to the perceived gap between those who have access to the latest information technologies and those who do not. More specifically, the digital divide is often measured by personal computer ownership and internet access.” (Huang & Russell) “The digital divide commonly refers to the gap between those who do and those who do not have access to new forms of information technology. Most often these forms are computers and their networks… There are different kinds of digital divides.” (van Dijk) “The U.S. Department of Commerce referred to the gap between people who have access to computer technology and people who do not as the digital divide.” (Kim & Bagaka)
 * 
 * What is the Digital Divide?**

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In today's age, technology is becoming central to everyday life. Now, even our cell phones can access the internet, and I would challenge anyone to find a professional job which does not include the use of technology in some way. Not only does technology allow for convenient communication and instant access to information, it can also be used as a tool to facilitate meaningful learning. The digital divide is not something that only affects people in developing countries; it is having an impact on our students' educations and future opportunities right here in the United States. If our students are not familiar with and able to use technology, they are going to be put at a disadvantage in every aspect of their lives. As educators, it should be one of our highest priorities to ensure that every student has the opportunity to access technology and to acquire technological skills that go beyond just a simple understanding of the most basic operations. It is also highly important that in our classrooms, we involve our students in learning with technology, not from technology.
 * Why Important?**

Learning about social inequalities has always been very interesting to me. I think this, perhaps, has something to do with why I would like to become an educator myself. Growing up, I was able to spend ample time on the computer and use the Internet for play and school work. Now, I think my laptop might be one of my most valued possessions. I use it everyday, and the addition of having wireless Internet in my apartment makes using my computer even more convenient. I can't imagine what it would be like to grow up with out this easy access to technology. Therefore, I thought it would be interesting to research this topic and see if there is still a large number of people who don't have access to technology. I thought this would be especially interesting in regards to students and how it affects their academic achievement.
 * Personal Connection**

1970’s & 1980’s- home computers are rare and expensive; the thought of people having access to their own computer is far off. 1991- High Performance Computing Act was passed allowing for mass Internet access in the U.S. There were about 313,000 computers online in the U.S. at this time. 1996- about 10 million computers online in the U.S. 1999- President Bill Clinton told an audience in Anaheim, Calif., yesterday: "There is a growing digital divide between those who have access to the digital economy and the Internet and those who don't, and that divide exists along the lines of education, income, region and race. . . . If we want to unlock the potential of our workers, we have to close that gap." 1990’s- research on digital divide focused on physical access 2002- social, scientific, communication, and educational research on the digital divide began to emphasize inequality of social, cultural and information capital and resources. Also, attention shifted to inequalities of skills, capabilities and interests when research started to deal with large-scale incorporation of digital media in daily life. 2005- The "digital divide" between rich and poor nations is narrowing fast, according to a World Bank report.
 * History**


 * Types of Access**



-//Motivational Access//- The desire to use technology “there are not only ‘have-nots’, but also ‘want-nots’” (van Dijk) Why?? -no need or significant usage opportunities -no time or liking -rejection of the medium -lack of money -lack of skills -technophobia (computer anxiety)

-//Skills Access-// after acquiring the motivation to use computers and some kind of physical access to them, one has to learn to manage the hardware and software (van Dijk). Surveys and tests preformed from 2000-2004 showed that: -the divides of skills access are bigger than the divides of physical access and -while physical access gaps are more or less closing in the developed countries, the skills gap tends to grow

-//Usage Access//- can be measures in 4 ways: -usage time -usage applications and diversity -broadband or narrowband use -more or less active or creative use

-National Technological Information Administration (NTIA) and the Economics and Statistics Administration (ESA) published a series of four study reports, the //Falling Through the Net// series, starting in 1995.
 * Research**

1995- //Falling Through the Net: A Survey of the "Have Nots" in Rural and Urban America// __http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fallingthru.html__ 1998- //Falling Through the Net II: New Data on the Digital Divide// __http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/net2/falling.html__ 1999- //Falling Through the Net: Defining the Digital Divide// __http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fttn99/fttn.pdf__ 2000- //Falling Through the Net: Towards Digital Inclusion// __http://search.ntia.doc.gov/pdf/fttn00.pdf__ The fourth report found that more Americans own computers than ever before, but certain groups, but certain groups are still far less likely to have computers or online access. -People with disability are only half as likely to have access to the internet as those without a disability. -Large gaps remain regarding internet penetration rates among households of different races and ethnic origins; Blacks and Hispanics experience the lowest penetration rates. -People age 50 and older are among the least likely to be internet users -Single-parent households are only half as likely to have internet access as two-parent households

-In 2002, NTIA and ESA published their fifth report examining the use of computers, the Internet, and other information technology tools by the American people: //A Nation Online: How Americans Are Expanding Their Use of the Internet// []

This report found that, “more than half of all Americans using computers and the Internet, we are truly a nation online.” -Children and teenagers use computers and the Internet more than any other age group. -Computers at schools substantially narrow the gap in computer usage rates for children from high and low-income families -Internet use is increasing for people regardless of income, education, age, races, ethnicity, or gender.

-In 2004 NTIA and ESA published their sixth report: //A Nation Online: Entering the Broadband Age// []-The report demonstrates that broadband use is growing swiftly, and that broadband technologies are expanding the range and frequency of Internet use. Yet, not all geographic locations in the United States are using high-speed services to the same degree. Future surveys will enable us to track our progress in ensuring that all Americans have access to this important information technology.

-In 2006, the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics published the article: // [|Internet Access in U.S. Public Schools and Classrooms: 1994-2005] ,// which contains [] -Found that in fall 2005, nearly 100 percent of public schools in the United States had access to the Internet, compared with 35 percent in 1994. In 2005, no differences in school Internet access were observed by any school characteristics, which is consistent with data reported previously. There have been virtually no differences in school access to the Internet by school characteristics since 1999.

There is a “lack of theory” in the digital divide research; it has remained at a descriptive level, emphasizing the demographics of income, education, age, sex, and ethnicity. The deeper social, cultural, and psychological fact is that the digital divide has not been discussed against the background of a general theory of social inequality, other types of inequality, or even a concept of human inequality in general. There is a lack of “interdisciplinary research”; there is a preponderance of sociological and economic research. Contributions from psychology and even from communication and education studies are relatively small. There is a “lack of qualitative research”. Most digital divide research is based on quantitative data collection and tries to describe the large picture of the problem. This produces correlations but does not explain the appropriation and division of the technology concerned in everyday life. However, qualitative research is able to show how attitudes to computer and Internet use are created and how inequalities of motivational, physical, skills and usage access are maintained in particular small individual and group settings where interpersonal relations and particular cultures dominate. There is “insufficient attention paid to the consequences of the digital divide(s) observed.” Are these consequences to be sought in more or less participation in several fields of society, or in more or less utilization of new technological opportunities?
 * Need for further research**

Myth: People are either “in or out, included or excluded” (van Dijk). Reality: The Pew survey revealed that the Internet population is “ever shifting” (van Dijk). There are “intermittent users” that may go offline for an extended period of time. There are “dropouts” that lost connection to the Internet. There are also “net-evaders” who refuse to use the Internet.
 * Myths about the Digital Divide**

Myth: Those who have a computer or Internet connection are actually using it. Reality: Many people who own computers or Internet access may only use them once a week or a couple of times a month, and a few people never use them.

Myth: Putting computers into schools will directly improve learning, more computers will result in greater improvements. Reality: Teachers need to be educated in how to teach in a way so students are learning with technology not from technology. Only then will meaningful learning occur.

Myth: Equity can be achieved by ensuring that schools in poor communities have the same student-to-computer ratios as schools in wealthier communities. Reality: Equity will still not be achieved, because children in wealthier communities will generally still have more access to technology because of their resources at home.

//What is exactly new about the inequality of access to and use of information and communication technology as compared to other scarce material and immaterial resources in society?// “Information as a source of inequality” (van Dijk pg. 231) -“Information is considered to be a //primary good//. Primary goods are material and immaterial goods that are so essential for the survival and self-respect of individuals that they can not be exchanged for other goods, such as basic (survival) level of income, life chances, freedoms, and fundamental rights. Information has become a primary good in contemporary society even though the minimum amount that is required appears hard to assess and is likely to differ according to the type of society. Not all people possess such a minimum, for example (functional) illiterates. When digital media are gradually replacing and surpassing analogue print media, traditional illiterates are joined by a new category, the ‘digital illiterates.’… It can also be a //positional good//. These are goods that, by definition, are scarce. Despite the phenomenon of information overload in society, information can be scarce in particular circumstances. Some positions in society create better opportunities than others in gathering, processing and using valuable information. This condition appears to be becoming increasingly important in the nascent network society. In this kind of society, the positions people have in social and media networks determines their potential power. As the importance of the media networks created by computers and their networks increases in contemporary society, having no position in these networks, or a marginal one, entails social exclusion. Contrary to that, those that are very much included because they do have a central position, the so-called information elite, increase their power, capital and resources. So, this is a second effect of the possession of information in the information and network society that amplifies old inequalities. A third amplifying effect comes from //information as a source of skills//…The successful appropriation of information and communications technology (ICT) creates a so-called ‘skills premium’. On the basis of very extensive quantitative longitudinal data of a large number of countries they argue that the skills premium of. having ICT skills is one of the main causes of increasing income inequality in these countries in the 1980s and 1990s.” van Dijk J.A.G.M. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. //Poetics//, 34 (4-5), p 231
 * Information as a source of Inequality**

“In the world today, information is a “resource for development”, and “the absence of reliable information is an epitome of underdevelopment”. At the societal level, information is essential in advancing education, culture, science, and technology, whereas at the individual level, information is instrumental in personal and professional development.” (Huang & Russell)

“Technology does not in itself solve social and economic discrepancies within societies, and can often exacerbate them.” (Huang & Russell)

“Educational benefits do not flow automatically from Internet access. Attitudes and expectations; technical knowledge; classroom culture and Internet culture; and curriculum design, implementation, and follow-through all affect what teachers and students can accomplish with the Internet. In at least one critical respect, the Internet turns out to be no different from any other classroom resource. What you get out of it depends a great deal on what you put into it.”
 * What can be done?**

Faculty and students should learn how to make best use of technology.

“The key determinant of our success will not be the number of computers purchased or cables installed, but rather how we define educational visions, prepare and support teachers, design curriculum, address issues of equity, and respond to the rapidly changing world." (Huang & Russell)

Before researching this topic, I had no idea how vast it actually was. I assumed that the "digital divide" referred to those who could afford computer and those who couldn't. I thought the term was especially used in reference to juxtapose developed countries with developing countries. But, after reading I learned about the divide that is still prevalent in the U.S. **
 * Reflection

Huang, J., & Russell, S. (2006). The digital divide and academic achievement. //The Electronic Library, 24(2)//, 160-173. Retrieved October 14, 2009, from www.emeraldinsight.com/0264-0473.html
 * Annotated Bibliography**

This article seeks to explore the relationship between students’ access to computers and the Internet and their academic achievement. The article details a study of three schools in Oklahoma with distinct socioeconomic characteristics. The findings suggest that although the digital divide is narrowing it is still very much in existence. Results from the study showed that there seemed to be a positive correlation between access to computers and the Internet and higher test scores, but the exact relationship is not precisely clear. Other factors affect the differences in test scores besides just computer and Internet access. The article summed this up nicely by stating, “ Educational benefits do not flow automatically from Internet access. Attitudes and expectations; technical knowledge; classroom culture and Internet culture; and curriculum design, implementation, and follow-through all affect what teachers and students can accomplish with the Internet. In at least one critical respect, the Internet turns out to be no different from any other classroom resource. What you get out of it depends a great deal on what you put into it.” This is pertinent to my inquiry project as it provides a research-based example of the affects of the digital divide within one area. It provides exact examples for me to elaborate on and suggests solutions for the digital divide. Specifically, this article focuses on student achievement and attempts to see how students are affected by the digital divide. It also examines other aspects that may go into student performance and affect the digital divide.

Kim, S. H., & Bagaka, J. (2005). The digital divide in students' usage of technology tools: a multilevel analysis of the role of teacher practices and classroom characteristics. //Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 5(3/4)//, 318-329.

This article examines the presence of the digital divide in 48 classrooms in Ohio. The findings of this study suggest that home computer access is an important factor in students’ utilization of computer resources. As a result, simply providing access to computers and the Internet in schools may be insufficient to close the digital divide. This study found that, “Even when schools provide equal access to computers for all students, the digital divide in students’ usage of technology tools still remains, due to differing students’ home environments.” This article is useful to me because it more closely examines aspects of the digital divide that the previous article did not. For example, it looks at how gender plays into technology and Internet usage. It also examines the differences in students’ usage of computer resources between those with and without computers at home. This is an interesting aspect to bring up within the proposed solutions of the digital divide. It makes the matter even more complicated, because even students can gain access to computers at school, they may still be at a huge technological disadvantage if they do not have a computer or Internet access at home.

van Dijk J.A.G.M. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. //Poetics//, 34 (4-5), 221-235. This article focuses on three questions: “(1) To what type of inequality does the digital divide concept refer? (2) What is new about the inequality of access to and use of ICTs as compared to other scarce material and immaterial resources? (3) Do new types of inequality exist or rise in the information society?” Not only does the article seek to answer these questions, it also analyzes fthe different types of access to technology that create the digital divide such as skills, materials, motivation, and usage. This article would be beneficial to my inquiry paper as it provides a better understanding of this history of the digital divide. While this article does not so much focus on the long-term results of the digital divide, it provides a thorough explanation on the types of inequality that it creates. This article would be most useful for me in describing exactly what the digital divide is, explaining its history, and examining the types of inequality surrounding it.


 * Additional Resources**

[] A Brief History of the Digital Divide.

[] The Digital Divide Network is the Internet's largest community for educators, activists, policy makers and concerned citizens working to bridge the digital divide.

[] A tool kit to bridge the digital divide in your community from the Department of Education.

[] The National Science Foundation ( [|NSF] ) has awarded a four-year, $6 million grant to [|EDUCAUSE], an association of over 1,600 institutions of higher education and 160 corporate partners, to materially assist Minority-Serving Institutions as they develop the campus infrastructure and national connections to become and remain full participants in the emerging Internet-based "Information Age."

[] In 2006, the US Census Bureau released a report entitled //Computer and Internet Use in the Schools: 2003.// Type in the content of your page here.